The overall goal of the book entitled “General Chemistry for Engineers” was the introduction the students to the relevance and industrial application of chemistry. In this book the fundamentals of general chemistry through a wide range of topics, relating the structure of matter, classification of chemical elements, classification of chemical compounds. The physical and the chemical properties of the elements in the various groups of the periodic table are discussed. The chemical properties of oxides, hydroxides, acids, and salts are described. Types of chemical reactions are also presented, and one chapter is devoted to basic chemical calculations. Moreover, the properties of gases, liquids, and solids are described. The book also incorporates the fundamentals of chemical kinetics and statics, and solution chemistry. Topics relevant to materials science are also introduced to meet the more specific needs of engineering students. Therefore, the use of batteries, fuel cells and electrolysis in industry has been described. The fundamentals of corrosion of metals and their protection against corrosion has been described. This approach emphasizes the connection of electrochemistry with materials engineering. A classification of organic compounds is presented, and their structure, physical, chemical properties and chemical reactivity are discussed. The last chapter in the book is devoted to issues related to polymer chemistry. The structure and the classification of the polymers, mechanism of the polymerization and application of polymers in industry have been presented.
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1. Structure of matter and basic laws of chemistry 13
Zbigniew Szklarz
1.1. Introduction 13
1.2. Basic concepts of chemistry 14
1.3. Structure of matter 17
1.3.1. Structure of atom 17
1.3.2. Periodic table of elements (PTE) 25
1.3.3. Structure of molecule and chemical bonds 27
1.4. Basic laws of chemistry 35
Literature 362. Classification of the chemical elements 37
Urszula Lelek-Borkowska, Maria Starowicz
2.1. Chemical elements 37
2.1.1. Periodic table of elements 37
2.1.2. Electron blocks in periodic table 39
2.1.3. Periodic trends in chemical properties of elements 40
2.1.4. General characteristic of metals 43
2.1.5. General characteristic of non-metals 43
2.1.6. General characteristic of semi-metals 44
2.2. Hydrogen 45
2.2.1. General characteristics 45
2.2.2. Physical properties 45
2.2.3. Chemical properties 46
2.2.4. Production 46
2.2.5. Compounds 47
2.2.6. Application 48
2.3. Alkali metals (lithium family) 49
2.3.1. General characteristics 49
2.3.2. Physical properties 49
2.3.3. Chemical properties 50
2.3.4. Production 51
2.3.5. Compounds and application 51
2.4. Alkaline earth metals (beryllium family) 52
2.4.1. General characteristics 52
2.4.2. Physical properties 52
2.4.3. Chemical properties 53
2.4.4. Production 54
2.4.5. Compounds and application 54
2.5. Boron family 55
2.5.1. General characteristics 55
2.5.2. Physical properties 56
2.5.3. Chemical properties 56
2.5.4. Production 57
2.5.5. Compounds and application 58
2.6. Carbon family 59
2.6.1. General characteristics 59
2.6.2. Physical properties 59
2.6.3. Chemical properties 61
2.6.4. Production 62
2.6.5. Compounds and application 63
2.7. Nitrogen family 65
2.7.1. General characteristics 65
2.7.2. Physical properties 65
2.7.3. Chemical properties 67
2.7.4. Production 67
2.7.5. Compounds and application 67
2.8. Oxygen family 68
2.8.1. General characteristics 68
2.8.2. Physical properties 70
2.8.3. Chemical properties 70
2.8.4. Production 70
2.8.5. Compounds and application 71
2.9. Halogen (fluorine family) 72
2.9.1. General characteristics 72
2.9.2. Physical properties 72
2.9.3. Chemical properties 73
2.9.4. Production 73
2.9.5. Compounds and application 74
2.10. Noble gases (helium family) 74
2.10.1. General characteristics 74
2.10.2. Physical properties 75
2.10.3. Chemical properties 75
2.10.4. Production 76
2.10.5. Compounds and application 76
2.11. D-block elements 76
2.11.1. General characteristics 76
2.11.2. Variable oxidation stages 78
2.11.3. Formation of complex ions 79
2.11.4. Colored ion formation 79
2.11.5. Preparation of transition metal 80
2.11.6. Scandium family 80
2.11.7. Titanium family 81
2.11.8. Vanadium family 82
2.11.9. Chromium family 83
2.11.10. Manganese family 83
2.11.11. Iron triad (Groups 8, 9, 10) 84
2.11.12. Platinum group elements (PGEs) 87
2.11.13. Copper family 87
2.11.14. Zinc family 88
2.12. F-block elements 89
Literature 903. Classification of inorganic compounds and types of chemical reactions 91
Maria Starowicz
3.1. Classification of inorganic compounds 91
3.1.1. Oxides 92
3.1.2. Hydrides 97
3.1.3. Hydroxides (bases) 99
3.1.4. Acids 101
3.1.5. Salts 104
3.2. Types of chemical reactions 109
3.2.1. Synthesis reaction (combination reaction) 109
3.2.2. Decomposition reaction 109
3.2.3. Replacement reaction 109
3.2.4. Red-ox reaction 110
3.2.5. Other criteria for classification of chemical reactions 113
Literature 1154. Basic calculations in chemistry 116
Bartosz Grysakowski
4.1. Stoichiometry and chemical reaction balancing 116
4.1.1. Redox reactions 126
4.1.2. Composition of compounds 142
4.1.3. Calculations based on chemical reaction equations 147
4.2. Compositions of mixtures and solutions 151
4.2.1. Concentration and dilution 159
4.2.2. Reactions in solutions 166
4.3. Basic calculations in thermochemistry 170
4.3.1. Hess’s law 172
4.3.2. Kirchhoff’s law 1765. States of matter 182
Alicja Łukaszczyk
5.1. General properties of gases and liquids 182
5.2. Densities of liquids, solid bodies, and gases 184
5.3. Application of density measurements 185
5.4. Gaseous state 185
5.4.1. The ideal gas law 185
5.4.2. Boyle–Mariotte law 187
5.4.3. Gay-Lussac’s law 188
5.4.4. The ideal gas law 192
5.4.5. Molar gas constant R 193
5.4.6. Dalton’s law 194
5.4.7. Diffusion of gases 197
5.4.8. Kinetic energy of gas molecules 198
5.4.9. Ideal gas energy 199
5.4.10. Real gases 200
5.5. Liquid state 202
5.5.1. Surface tension 202
5.5.2. Liquid viscosity 203
5.6. General characteristics of solids 205
5.6.1. Geometric classification of solids 205
5.6.2. Electronic classification of solids 205
5.6.3. Crystal system 206
5.7. Liquid crystals 208
Literature 2096. Chemical kinetics and statics 210
Dominika Święch
6.1. Chemical kinetics 210
6.1.1. Microscopic theory of chemical reaction kinetics 210
6.1.2. Definition of reaction rates (speed of reaction) and rate laws ...... 212
6.1.3. Determination of relationship between reactant concentration and time 214
6.1.4. Half-life of reactions 218
6.1.5. Reaction mechanism and rate law for elementary reaction steps 218
6.1.6. Factors affecting reaction rate 220
6.2. Chemical statics 224
6.2.1. Chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constant 224
6.2.2. Homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria 225
6.2.3. Le Châtelier’s principle 228
Literature 2337. Chemistry of solutions 234
Urszula Lelek-Borkowska 7.1. Solutions 234
7.1.1. Types of mixtures – definitions 234
7.1.2. Formation of solutions 236
7.1.3. Solubility 237
7.2. Expressions of solution content 238
7.2.1. Mass (weight) percent 238
7.2.2. Volume percent 239
7.2.3. Molar concentration 239
7.2.4. Normal concentration 240
7.2.5. Molarity 242
7.2.6. Molar fraction (mole fraction) 243
7.3. Ideal and real solutions 244
7.3.1. Activity 245
7.3.2. Henry’s law 245
7.3.3. Raoult’s law 246
7.3.4. Distillation, rectification 248
7.3.5. Cryoscopic and ebulioscopic effects 248
7.3.6. Diffusion, Fick’s law 249
7.3.7. Osmosis 250
7.4. Water and water solutions 251
7.4.1. Electrolytes 252
7.4.2. Dissociation, hydration, conductivity of ions 253
7.4.3. Degree of dissociation, strength of electrolytes 254
7.4.4. Dissociation constant 255
7.4.5. Ostwald’s dilution law 257
7.4.6. Solubility product 257
7.4.7. Conductivity 258
7.5. Acids and bases 259
7.5.1. Definitions of acids and bases 260
7.5.2. Arrhenius definition 260
7.5.3. Theory of Brønsted and Lowry 261
7.5.4. Lewis’s theory 261
7.5.5. Summary of acid-base theories 262
7.5.6. Determination of acidity 263
7.5.7. Acidity, pH concept, measuring of pH 263
7.5.8. Neutralization, titration 267
7.5.9. Hydrolysis 268
7.5.10. Buffers 270
7.6. Hardness of water 271
7.6.1. Expressions of water hardness 272
7.6.2. Removal of hardness (softening of water) 273
7.6.3. Distillation 273
7.6.4. Thermal method 273
7.6.5. Chemical methods 274
7.6.6. Physico-chemical methods 2758. Electrochemistry 277
Halina Krawiec
8.1. Oxidation – reduction reactions (redox reactions) 277
8.2. Electrochemical reactions 278
8.3. Electrochemical equilibrium 279
8.3.1. Electrochemical potential 279
8.3.2. Kinetics of electrochemical reaction, equilibrium, exchange current, Nernst Equation 280
8.4. Measurements of electrode potential, reference electrodes 283
8.5. Galvanic series 284
8.6. Galvanic cells 286
8.6.1. Galvanic cells – examples 288
8.6.2. Alkaline batteries 288
8.6.3. Lead-acid battery: Pb|PbO2 |H2 SO4 , H2 O|PbSO4 |Pb 289
8.6.4. Fuel cells 290
8.7. Electrolysis. Application of electrolysis 293
8.7.1. Laws of electrolysis 294
8.7.2. Application of electrolysis in industry 294
8.7.2.1. Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride 294
8.7.2.2. Extraction of aluminum by electrolysis 295
8.7.2.3. Silver electroplating 296
Literature 2979. Corrosion and corrosion protection 298
Halina Krawiec
9.1. Introduction 298
9.2. Electrochemical corrosion 299
9.2.1. Anodic and cathodic reactions 300
9.2.2. Electrode potential 301
9.2.3. Corrosion rate 302
9.2.4. Types of corrosion cells 302
9.2.5. Corrosion of iron and steel, formation of rust – example 303
9.2.6. Types of corrosion 304
9.2.7. Protection from corrosion 309
9.3. High-temperature corrosion (dry corrosion, HTC) 318
Literature 32010. Organic chemistry 321
Edyta Proniewicz
10.1. Introduction 321
10.2. Nomenclature 321
10.3. Properties 325
10.3.1. Isomerism 326
10.3.2. Atom order 328
10.4. Hybridization 329
10.5. Classification 332
10.5.1. Hydrocarbons 332
10.5.1.1. General properties 332
10.5.1.2. Isomers 334
10.5.1.3. Alkanes 334
10.5.1.4. Alkenes 335
10.5.1.5. Alkynes 336
10.5.1.6. Cyclohydrocarbons 337
10.5.1.7. Arenes 338
10.5.2. Halogenated hydrocarbons 339
10.5.3. Hydrocarbon derivatives 340
10.5.3.1. Amines 340
10.5.3.2. Alcohols 342
10.5.3.3. Ethers 343
10.5.3.4. Carbonyl compounds 345
10.5.4. Carbohydrates 352
10.5.5. Nucleic acids 356
10.5.6. Amino acids, peptides, and proteins 357
Literature 36011. Polymers 361
Gaetano Palumbo
11.1. Introduction 361
11.2. Classification 362
11.3. Polymerization 368
11.4. Addition polymerization (chain-growth) 369
11.5. Condensation polymerization (step-growth) 373
11.6. Amorphous and crystalline classification 375
11.7. Mechanical property of polymers 378
11.8. Effect of temperature 384
Literature 395